An Introduction to Sociological Perspectives
Sociology is the study of society and the different social structures within it. ‘Social structures’ refers to the different parts that make up society. Sociologists look at patterns in various social relationships and develop theories that will help explain it and in many cases determine social change. There are many sociological groups that all have their individual perspectives and theories on sociological issues which is explained further below.
Functionalism
The functionalist approach looks at how society completes systems and parts within the systems are not understandable in isolation from each other’s. Functionalists related society to the human body: the heart, lungs and brain work together so the body can function properly, in the same way family, education and the law work together to improve society.
The human body consists of dependant organs and systems whereas society consists of dependant social institutions.
In more detail:
The government, or state, provides education for the children of the family, which in turn pays taxes on which the state depends to keep itself running. The family is dependent upon the school to help children grow up to have good jobs so that they can raise and support their own families. In the process, the children become law-abiding, taxpaying citizens, who in turn support the state.
Every social institution has a main function to help improve society and link with other social institutions to work effectively to improve society. Functionalists described society as a ‘social system’ to show their idea of a dependent network of various social institutions.
Criticisms of Functionalism
It ignores conflict and competition in society and paints a positive image of goals and values of a socialisation process that will not fail. Functionalist generally ignores the fact that humans are completely unpredictable. They do not recognise that there is a difference between class, region and ethnic groups. Functionalists simply reflect on middle class families.
Marxism
Marxism is regarded as a conflict perspective as the approach looks at the inequalities and exploitation of wealth which are established by a capitalist economic system and how it affects individuals and society. This sociological theory was developed by Karl Marx who had a view that there are two social classes in society:
- The capitalists – a small group who had factories and different places of employment.
- The proletariat– this is a poor group of workers who were employed by the capitalists
Marx claimed that the proletariat are being exploited by the bourgeoisie. The proletariats live in false class consciousness according to the Marxist. Marxist believe that we live in a capitalist society, where the entire purpose is to gain capital for the bourgeoisie. The only power the proletariats possess is their labor power i.e. their ability to work. 90% of wealth is owned by the ruling class, therefore the majority of people are being exploited.
Marx stated that where there are two different social class, ‘rich and poor’, there will always be conflict, this explains why the Marxism theory was called the conflict model. But Marx believed that the only way to resolve this conflict is by revolution.
Criticisms of Marxism
Marxists had the same belief functionalists had that a human’s behaviour is the key result in the socialisation process which didn’t have the individual’s choice. Marxism is criticised for focusing too much on social-class inequality, whereas the social class conditions have improved dramatically over the years. While Marxist suggest that the only way to resolve the problems in capitalism is through a revolution and replacing the unfair system with a communist one, evidence suggests that even in a communist society there will always be inequality in the distribution of power.
Feminism
Feminism is the theory that examines women’s social roles, experience, interests, chores, and feminist politics in a variety of fields. The Feminist theory is strongly influenced by Marxist ideas. While Marx focused on the economic inequality between different groups within society, Feminists concentrate primarily on ‘gender inequality’. There are different groups of feminist e.g. Marxist, radical and liberal feminist. Feminists believed that women were discriminated against because of their gender.
Radical Feminist
Radical feminists concentrate on the patriarchal structure of society. The term ‘patriarchal society’ refers to society being controlled by men for the interest of men. Many radical feminists say that patriarchal structures influence social institutions. Radical feminists say that family is the main reason for patriarchal structure in society and other social institutions. Radical feminists then went on to believe that the patriarchy was spread throughout the relationship between both women and men on two different levels. According to radical feminist women need to be aware of the extent to which they are being exploited for example sexually, financially and emotionally by men and challenge the society. They believe that men are responsible for most of the problems in the world and women can do a far better job, therefore they are fighting to achieve a matriarchal society.
Feminists: Andrea Dwokin, Catherine Mckinon, Susan Brownmiller and Valerie Solonas have focused on domestic violence, sexual harassment and rape. They are not simply campaigning to overcome the patriarchal society, but also to empower women.
Marxist Feminist
Marxist feminist focuses on the exploitation of women, especially women in the working class social status. Marxist feminist looks at how women’s injustice, treatment or control is a product to the economic position of women. The theory stated that women have a more subordinate position than men in terms of class relationships. Women were semi-proletarianised workers which means that the labour was forced. They are critical of women maintaining the household, cooking, cleaning, washing and performing other domestic duties without pay.
Liberal Feminist
Liberal feminist are also concerned about the exploitation of women but they are more interested in fighting for greater equality of opportunity for women. Some of the equality rights of opportunity that women have now that they did not have in the past:
- Having the same job opportunities as men
- Government roles
- Equal pay to men
- Entitled to education and they’re ability to make choices on what they want to study
- Freedom of speech
Criticisms of Feminism
Too much of the Feminism theory is focused on gender inequality, while it ignores other forms of inequality in society. Feminism also ignores the differences of inequality amongst women, some woman have more power than others. Many people argue that the feminist movement has already achieved its goals. Men and women are now equal, having careers in professional sectors such as police officers, lawyers, or enter in any other ‘male dominated’ professions.
Interactionism
Interactionism was also known as the social action approach and was compared to other structured perspectives in terms of not focusing on big institutions and how they link and function with one another. The Interactionism approach looked at individual’s behaviour and the way society is shaped under the influence of small groups. Interactionist’s will look at various groups from gangs to patients in hospital wards.
This approach believed that individuals were being influenced by the socialisation process. This was because individuals were able to choose their own roles and choose how they’ll behave. Theorists weren’t interested about the social structure, but on how individual’s behaviours were caused by the way the individual looks at a situation, e.g. they would be more concerned about comprehending how the interaction between teenagers may lead to rioting, rather than the role riots play in society. Also theorists saw individual’s behaviour due to their self-esteem and the way others perceive us.
Criticisms of Interactionism
The Interactionism approach only focuses on concepts of social life and doesn’t look at society as a social system. Interactionist’s research was mainly micro-scale and the end result in the research didn’t always apply to society. The perspective described individual’s behaviour by the influence of gangs and social relationships e.g. Doctor and service user. Interactionism does not look at bigger social factors that could influence an individual’s behaviour. Many social theorists tend to base their idea on interactions between small groups than bigger issues.
Collectivists
The Collectivist approach focuses on the progress of the group, rather than just on individual progress. looks at how the government has the main responsibility to provide health care services to society. The main priority for the collectivism is to provide support and meet the needs of service users, e.g. children and old people received support from the government.
This perspective was shown by the post second world war by the labour government who formed the ‘welfare state’ in order to help fight social problems in Britain’s society. Due to the ideas of the collectivists this lead to the government forming the National Health Service and primary and secondary schools.
Criticisms on Collectivists
The ideas of the collectivist approach results in state dependency, it prevents individual’s from looking after themselves and their own affairs as they begin to rely on the state to provide them for their needs.
Postmodernism
Postmodernism is a theory that moves beyond modernism. The term literally means after modernism. Post modernists argue that the ideas and the modern era, such as structures and seeking scientific explanations to events no longer applies. Postmodernist argue that in a postmodern society, the ideas of social class, capitalism and large scale social structures and seeking scientific explanations to events are no longer valid. Postmodernist argue that in a postmodern society, the ideas of social class, capitalism and large scale social structures is no longer valid. As different attributes are now being used as an indicator to social class, e.g. what and where we eat, the car we drive, the friends we have and our social pursuits.
Within a post-modern society, the rules, norms and values are not clear as these vary from one location to the next and from one group of people to the next. The level of respect for teachers has decreased. Postmodernist society are filled with uncertainty and the quest for identity. People are more concerned about where they fit into society and how they can help to bring about a condition that is suited to their individual needs. Postmodern societies are becoming more individualistic and materialistic, this in itself can and does create tensions with society.
Criticisms on Postmodern
The postmodern society grows in the arts, media and culture, rapid social changes which is why their ideas are not always clear.
New Right
The New Right approach goes against the collectivists ideas as their policy is tough on crime, strong on individualism. The New Right theory study claims that some groups in society are forming an ‘underclass’ social class. They believe that individuals should fend for themselves. They believe that the role of education should strive you to be in competition with others, opposed to unconventional values improving social justice. Promoting social equality through equal opportunity campaigns against the gap of rich and poor. The New Right approach encourages the population to be independent and to recognise our individualities.
Criticisms of New Right
The New Right tends to blame victims for the things that are not of their own making. Many of the problems identified come from low wages, lack of employment opportunities, cultural changes etc.
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